ERIC Documents Database Citations & Abstracts for Grading Policies and Practices in Elementary Secondary Education
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Grading or Grades (Scholastic) [ERIC Descriptors]
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Elementary Secondary Education or Elementary Education or Secondary Education [ERIC Descriptors]
EJ556862 EA534185
Can Grades Be Helpful and Fair?
Bursuck, William D.; Munk, Dennis D.
Educational Leadership, v55 n4 p44-47 Dec-Jan 1997-
1998
ISSN: 0013-1784
Document Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE (080); EVALUATIVE REPORT (142)
Letter grades are still the most popular way of indicating student
performance. Both included (special-needs) and general-education
students perceive the use of adaptations for some but not all
students as unfair. Although half of all general-education teachers
use informal grading adaptations, few consider them fair. Schools
should develop a policy, include a menu of grading adaptations,
explain the policy to teachers, and preserve confidentiality. (MLH)
Descriptors: Elementary Secondary Education; *Evaluation Criteria;
*Grades (Scholastic); *Inclusive Schools; *Special Needs Students;
*Student Attitudes; Student Evaluation; Teacher Attitudes; *Weighted
Scores
Identifiers: *Fairness
EJ535706 EA532813
Grades: The Final Frontier in Assessment Reform.
Cizek, Gregory J.
NASSP Bulletin, v80 n584 p103-10 Dec 1996
ISSN: 0192-6365
Document Type: EVALUATIVE REPORT (142); JOURNAL ARTICLE (080)
Lack of knowledge and interest in grading translates into a serious
information breakdown in education. Reforming classroom assessment
and grading practices will require educators' commitment to
professional development, classroom-relevant training programs, help
from professional organizations and testing experts, a coordinated
vision, consistently developed and applied policies, teacher
collaboration, and revamped student attitudes toward grades. (13
references) (MLH)
Descriptors: *Change Strategies; *Grading; *Professional
Development; *Report Cards; Secondary Education; *Student Evaluation;
*Teacher Responsibility
EJ517915 EC612752
Report Card Grading and Adaptations: A National Survey of Classroom
Practices.
Bursuck, William; And Others
Exceptional Children, v62 n4 p301-18 Feb 1996
ISSN: 0014-4029
Available From: UMI
Document Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE (080); RESEARCH REPORT (143)
A national survey of elementary and secondary general education
teachers (n=368, response rate of 52%) examined classroom grading
practices, including grading adaptations for students with
disabilities. Results indicated that teachers found certain
adaptations (pass-fail grades, portfolios, multiple grades, and
grading for effort) useful for students both with and without
disabilities. (DB)
Descriptors: Classroom Techniques; *Disabilities; Educational
Practices; Elementary Secondary Education; Evaluation Methods;
*Grading; Inclusive Schools; National Surveys; *Report Cards;
*Student Evaluation; *Teacher Attitudes
Identifiers: *Academic Accommodations (Disabilities)
ED405358 TM026194
Bibliography of Assessment Alternatives: Grading. Innovative
Assessment.
Northwest Regional Educational Lab., Portland, OR. Test Center.
Sep 1996
31p.
Sponsoring Agency: Office of Educational Research and Improvement
(ED), Washington, DC.
Document Type: BIBLIOGRAPHY (131)
This bibliography includes papers about grading and reporting,
sample report card formats, training materials on grading and
reporting, and first-person narratives from educators who have tried
to reform the ways they grade students. The first section of this
annotated bibliography is a listing of the articles in alphabetical
order by primary author, and the second section is an index using
content descriptors developed for the paper. Items in this
bibliography may be borrowed free of charge in Alaska, Idaho,
handling fee. A shelf number is listed at the end of each annotation.
Contains 50 annotated references. (SLD)
Descriptors: Annotated Bibliographies; *Educational Assessment;
Elementary Secondary Education; Grades (Scholastic); *Grading; Higher
Education; *Report Cards; *Scoring; *Student Evaluation; *Training;
Identifiers: United States (Northwest)
ED398262 TM025216
Hodgepodge Grading: Endorsed by Students and Teachers Alike.
Cross, Lawrence H.; Frary, Robert B.
Apr 1996
15p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council
on Measurement in Education (New York, NY, April 9-11, 1996).
Document Type: RESEARCH REPORT (143); CONFERENCE PAPER (150)
Previous research clearly documents that teachers often award what
S. M. Brookhart (1991) has referred to as a "hodgepodge grade of
attitude, effort, and achievement." This paper reports on a survey of
grading practices involving 310 middle and high school teachers of
academic subjects in a single school system. Also surveyed were
7,367 middle and high school students from the same system. The
results largely validate the findings of earlier studies.
Substantial majorities of the teachers reported "hodgepodge" grading
practices. More important, the students largely confirmed and
supported the hodgepodge grading practices reported by their teachers.
These results are contrasted with grading practices widely
recommended in measurement texts followed by a discussion of how
measurement specialists may be missing the mark in their efforts to
communicate their views to teachers, school administrators, and the
general public. (Contains 4 tables and 11 references.) (Author)
Descriptors: Academic Achievement; Educational Assessment; *Grades
(Scholastic); *Grading; High Schools; *High School Students; Junior
High Schools; *Junior High School Students; *Secondary School
Teachers; Student Evaluation; Surveys; *Teacher Attitudes; Teacher
Education; Theory Practice Relationship
EJ523863 SP525057
Coercion and the Ethics of Grading and Testing.
Curren, Randall R.
Educational Theory, v45 n4 p425-41 Fall 1995
ISSN: 0013-2004
Document Type: POSITION PAPER (120); JOURNAL ARTICLE (080)
Addresses two issues in the ethics of grading and testing. The
first is the charge that the practice of grading students is
intrinsically coercive. The second is the national debate about
authentic assessment, educational standards, and standardized
measures of educational outcomes. The paper suggests there is an
acceptable middle ground. (SM)
Descriptors: Elementary Secondary Education; *Ethics; Evaluation
Methods; *Grading; Moral Values; *Performance Based Assessment;
*Standardized Tests; *Student Evaluation; Testing
Identifiers: Coercion Theory
EJ513357 EA531106
Formative and Summative Assessment: A Possible Alternative to the
Grading-Reporting Dilemma.
Reedy, Randy
NASSP Bulletin, v79 n573 p47-51 Oct 1995
ISSN: 0192-6365
Document Type: EVALUATIVE REPORT (142); JOURNAL ARTICLE (080)
If evaluation is to communicate and promote student learning, it
must be separated into formative and summative components. A grading
policy that provides nonthreatening feedback (via observation of
student work, group evaluation activities, classroom participation,
homework, reports, discussions, and portfolios) can help students
concentrate on learning. (19 references) (MLH)
Descriptors: *Evaluation Methods; *Formative Evaluation; *Grading;
Learning Processes; *Models; Secondary Education; *Student Evaluation;
*Summative Evaluation
EJ504999 EA530684
Guidelines for Grading That Support Learning and Student Success.
O'Conner, Ken
NASSP Bulletin, v79 n571 p91-101 May 1995
ISSN: 0192-6365
Document Type: EVALUATIVE REPORT (142); JOURNAL ARTICLE (080)
Grading should be used to support learning and encourage student
success. Under proposed guidelines, teachers should limit the valued
attributes to achievement, sample student performance, grade in
pencil, relate grading procedures to intended outcomes, crunch
numbers carefully, use absolute grading distribution standards, use
quality assessment instruments, and describe grading practices to
students. (33 references) (MLH)
Descriptors: *Academic Achievement; Elementary Secondary Education;
*Evaluation Criteria; *Grading; *Guidelines; *Student Evaluation
ED384613 TM023199
Further Investigation of Teachers' Assessment Practices.
Cizek, Gregory J.; And Others
Apr 1995
43p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association (San Francisco, CA, April 18-22,
1995).
Document Type: RESEARCH REPORT (143); CONFERENCE PAPER (150)
A sample of 143 midwestern elementary and secondary school teachers
from a variety of practice settings responded to a survey and
provided comments regarding their assessment and practices. The
study collected background (demographic) information on the teachers
and information on some assessment-related practices, including: (1)
the frequency with which teachers assign routine class assignments;
(2) the types of marks used to report student performance; (3) the
frequency and grading of major assignments and tests; (4) the source
of classroom tests; (5) the kinds of marks used; (6) the methods used
to combine marks; (7) the meaning of grades; (8) teachers' knowledge
and perceptions regarding district grading policies; and (9)
teachers' awareness of the grading policies of their peers. It was
found that assessment practices vary widely and unpredictably. Few
relationships were observed between teachers' assessment and grading
practices and personal or background characteristics such as practice
level, years of experience, gender, or familiarity with district
policies. Teachers generally claimed to use a variety of factors in
assigning grades, and a majority of teachers surveyed indicated that
they were unaware of both their districts' policies and their
colleagues' practices. Conclusions, recommendations, and
implications of these findings are discussed. (Contains 33
references and 4 tables.) (Author)
Descriptors: Educational Assessment; Educational Policy;
*Educational Practices; *Elementary School Teachers; Elementary
Secondary Education; Experience; Grades (Scholastic); *Grading;
School Districts; *Secondary School Teachers; Sex Differences;
Student Evaluation; Surveys; *Teacher Attitudes; Teacher
Characteristics; Test Construction; *Testing
EJ527450 EA530071
Making the Grade: What Benefits Students?
Guskey, Thomas R.
Educational Leadership, v52 n2 p14-20 Oct 1994
ISSN: 0013-1784
Available From: UMI
Document Type: EVALUATIVE REPORT (142); REVIEW LITERATURE (070);
JOURNAL ARTICLE (080)
Researchers agree that grading and reporting are not essential to
instruction; there is no best grading system; grading is inherently
subjective; and grades have some value as rewards, but none as
punishments. Types of learning criteria and practical grading
guidelines are outlined, along with a brief history of grading
practices since the late 1880s. (45 references) (MLH)
Descriptors: *Academic Achievement; *Educational Benefits;
Elementary Secondary Education; *Grading; Guidelines; *Learning
EJ527454 EA530075
Grading: The Issue Is Not How but Why.
Kohn, Alfie
Educational Leadership, v52 n2 p38-41 Oct 1994
ISSN: 0013-1784
Document Type: EVALUATIVE REPORT (142); JOURNAL ARTICLE (080)
Rather than challenging grades alone, educators should question the
whole assessment enterprise. The three rationales for grading
(sorting, motivation, and feedback) are problematic, since they
stress a demand (obligation), as opposed to a support, model. Ideas
for adopting supportive assessment and avoiding grading abuses are
provided. (19 references) (MLH)
Descriptors: *Educational Objectives; Elementary Secondary
Education; Feedback; *Grading; Labeling (of Persons); Motivation;
*Problems; *Student Evaluation
Identifiers: *Performance Based Evaluation
EJ495739 TM518393
Teachers' Grading: Practice and Theory.
Brookhart, Susan M.
Applied Measurement in Education, v7 n4 p279-301 1994
ISSN: 0895-7347
Document Type: EVALUATIVE REPORT (142); JOURNAL ARTICLE (080)
This article is organized into two parts: (1) a review of
literature on teachers' grading practices, and (2) a discussion of
the findings about teachers' grading practices in light of evaluation
and motivation theory. The discussion considers both research
implications and practical recommendations. (Author)
Descriptors: Educational Assessment; *Educational Practices;
Elementary Secondary Education; Evaluation Methods; *Grades
(Scholastic); *Grading; Informal Assessment; Literature Reviews;
*Motivation; *Student Evaluation; Theories
EJ490760 CS748358
Ten Measures Better than Grading.
Malehorn, Hal
Clearing House, v67 n6 p323-24 Jul-Aug 1994
ISSN: 0009-8655
Document Type: POSITION PAPER (120); JOURNAL ARTICLE (080)
Describes 10 methods of assessment that teachers can use alone or
in combination: (1) multiple marking, (2) peer evaluation, (3)
mastery learning, (4) contracted learning, (5) credit-no credit
grading, (6) self-evaluation, (7) anecdotal records, (8) pupil
profiles, (9) checklists, and (10) dossiers. (FL)
Descriptors: Educational Testing; Elementary Secondary Education;
Evaluation Methods; Grades (Scholastic); *Grading; *Informal
Assessment; Mastery Learning; Peer Evaluation; Self Evaluation
(Individuals); *Student Evaluation
ED367666 TM021103
What Do Student Grades Mean? Differences across Schools. Education
Research Report.
Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington,
DC. Office of Research. Jan 1994
5p.
Document Type: SERIAL (022)
In spite of widespread concerns about low academic achievement
nationally, parents generally have expressed satisfaction with their
own children's achievement and schools, largely because their
children's grades suggest that they are doing well. This report
examines what student grades tell about achievement through the use
of data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988
(NELS:88). Overall, the average grade today is a "B." Comparisons of
schools in high-poverty areas and those in more affluent areas
indicate that "B" students in high-poverty schools have about the
same NELS:88 test scores as do students receiving "D" or lower in
schools with the lowest concentrations of poor students. "C"
students in the poorest schools had about the same test scores as
failing students in the most affluent schools. While NELS:88 scores
are only one indicator, other indicators also show the need to
improve the quality of education in schools, particularly in poverty
areas. Parents need to ask how grades are determined, and whether
the student is receiving an appropriately challenging education.
(Contains 3 references.) (SLD)
Descriptors: *Academic Achievement; Accountability; Comparative
Analysis; Educational Change; Educationally Disadvantaged;
*Educational Practices; Elementary Secondary Education; Grade
Inflation; *Grades (Scholastic); *Grading; Longitudinal Studies; Low
Income Groups; Parent Attitudes; *Parent Participation; Parent Rights;
Poverty; School Districts; Scores; Student Evaluation; Test Results
Identifiers: *National Education Longitudinal Study 1988
EJ481351 EA529303
Grading Practices and Policies: An Overview and Some Suggestions.
Ornstein, Allan C.
NASSP Bulletin, v78 n561 p55-64 Apr 1994
ISSN: 0192-6365
Available From: UMI
Document Type: EVALUATIVE REPORT (142); JOURNAL ARTICLE (080)
Young students have little understanding of grades. This article
examines grading systems and standards and presents grading
guidelines, beginning with grade five. Teachers should explain
grades to students; base grades on a predetermined set of standards
and on students' progress, attitudes, and relative class standing;
consider various sources; and change grades only when incorrect.
(MLH)
Descriptors: *Grading; *Guidelines; *School Policy; Secondary
Education; *Standards; *Teacher Responsibility
EJ478733 UD517785
Giving Their Best: Grading and Recognition Practices That Motivate
Students to Work Hard.
Mac Iver, Douglas J.; Reuman, David A.
American Educator: The Professional Journal of the American
Federation of Teachers, v17 n4 p24-31 Win 199 1994
ISSN: 0148-432X
Available From: UMI
Document Type: PROJECT DESCRIPTION (141); RESEARCH REPORT (143);
JOURNAL ARTICLE (080)
Traditional assessment, grading, and student-recognition practices
are partly responsible for the low levels of student effort pervading
American schools. Two improvement-focused systems for student
accountability and recognition that have been field tested are
presented: The Incentives for Improvement Program (Baltimore,
Maryland) and the Windham Challenge Program (Willimantic,
Connecticut). (SLD)
Descriptors: Academic Achievement; Accountability; Awards;
*Educational Assessment; Educational Improvement; Educational
Objectives; Elementary Secondary Education; Feedback; Field Tests;
Goal Orientation; *Grading; *Incentives; Objectives; Outcomes of
Education; *Recognition (Achievement); Scoring; *Standards; *Student
Motivation; Teacher Student Relationship; Track System (Education)
Identifiers: Connecticut; *Effort; Maryland (Baltimore)
EJ475870 EA528942
Grading and Marking Systems: What Are the Practices, Standards?
Wendel, Frederick C.; Anderson, Kenneth E.
NASSP Bulletin, v78 n558 p79-84 Jan 1994
ISSN: 0192-6365
Available From: UMI
Document Type: EVALUATIVE REPORT (142); JOURNAL ARTICLE (080)
Principals are responsible for improving the grading and marking
systems in their schools. School administrators should provide
leadership for designing, revising, and validating grading systems
that meet sound measurement principles, are applied uniformly, and
match local needs. This article reviews definitions, operational
principles, legal issues, and student achievement issues associated
with grading. (MLH)
Descriptors: *Administrator Responsibility; *Definitions;
Elementary Secondary Education; *Grading; *Legal Problems; *Standards;
*Teacher Responsibility
EJ452362 TM516761
An NCME Instructional Module on Developing a Personal Grading Plan.
Frisbie, David A.; Waltman, Kristie K.
Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, v11 n3 p35-42 Fall
1992
ISSN: 0731-1745
Document Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE (080); NON-CLASSROOM MATERIAL (055)
Target Audience: Teachers; Practitioners
This paper assists teachers in developing grading practices that
communicate students' achievements to their parents effectively and
fairly. A teacher's personal grading philosophy must be considered
in developing a personal plan. Procedural steps in establishing a
plan are outlined, and the features of several common methods are
compared. (SLD)
Descriptors: *Academic Achievement; *Classroom Techniques;
Elementary School Teachers; Elementary Secondary Education; Grades
(Scholastic); *Grading; Guides; Informal Assessment; Scoring;
Secondary School Teachers; *Student Evaluation; *Teacher Developed
Materials; Teacher Role
ED343944 TM018122
"Here's Another Arbitrary Grade for Your Collection": A Statewide
Study of Grading Policies.
Austin, Susan; McCann, Richard
Mar 1992
41p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association (San Francisco, CA, April 20-24,
1992).
EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
Document Type: EVALUATIVE REPORT (142); CONFERENCE PAPER (150)
In response to concerns about current grading policies and
procedures, a study was undertaken to provide state leaders with
descriptions of grading policies and procedures across high schools.
A total of 144 districts (out of 292 in the state that was the focus
of this study) responded. Documents provided by the districts varied
according to district, but included materials from school board,
district administration, school, and department levels. Analysis
covered the following: (1) purposes of grades; (2) audiences for
grades; (3) criteria for calculating grades; (4) grading-related
practices; (5) directive nature of school board policies; (6) amount
of building-level guidance on grading practices; and (7) staff
development. There was considerable variation across the districts,
although documents from several districts did not clearly indicate
what criteria should be used in determining grades and how those
criteria should be applied. Few districts appeared to give teachers
adequate guidance to ensure consistent grading, and no district
provided information about staff development to improve grading. It
appears that most systems develop policies and procedures that
attempt to achieve all purposes for all stakeholders, and
consequently achieve none very well. Six tables present study
findings, and one figure illustrates multiple grading criteria. A 12-
item list of references and four appendices with supplemental
information about policies are included. (SLD)
Descriptors: *Educational Policy; *Evaluation Criteria; Grades
(Scholastic); *Grading; High Schools; High School Students; *School
Districts; School Surveys; Staff Development; *State Surveys;
*Student Evaluation; Testing Programs
ED348357 SP033995
Teachers' Evaluations of Student Work.
Mead, James V.
National Center for Research on Teacher Learning, East Lansing, MI.
Jul 1992
36p.
Sponsoring Agency: Office of Educational Research and Improvement
(ED), Washington, DC.
Document Type: RESEARCH REPORT (143)
This study was conducted to examine the criteria elementary and
secondary mathematics teachers use when assigning grades, the visible
mark of a teacher's evaluation, when shown individual pieces of
mathematics work. Data come from the Teacher Education and Learning
to Teach longitudinal study of preservice programs, various types of
on-the-job induction programs, and inservice programs. Respondents
were asked one question, "What grade would you give this paper and
why?" In a series of tables, the paper depicts both the allocation of
grades given to the work and the criteria for assigning grades.
Inferences that these teachers make about student understanding and
effort are tabulated. Results suggest: (1) grading student work is a
neglected subject; (2) grading appears to be a distasteful and
marginalized teacher activity; (3) grading practices have taken on a
life of their own that justifies teacher educators' careful
attention; (4) how a grade is going to be assigned represents a novel
point of entry to a discussion of instructional purpose and design;
and (5) teacher educators might consider providing a sustained
treatment of grading practices and their rationale. (LL)
Descriptors: Elementary School Mathematics; Elementary Secondary
Education; *Evaluation Criteria; *Grading; Higher Education;
*Mathematics Teachers; Secondary School Mathematics; *Student
Evaluation; Teacher Education Programs; Teacher Educators
ED346145 TM018477
An Investigation of Achievement and Nonachievement Criteria in
Elementary and Secondary School Grading.
Nava, Fe Josefa G.; Loyd, Brenda H.
Apr 1992
35p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association (San Francisco, CA, April 20-24,
1992).
Document Type: RESEARCH REPORT (143); CONFERENCE PAPER (150)
Criteria that teachers include in grading and the weight given each
were investigated in a sample of 827 elementary school and high
school teachers from 18 school districts. A three-section survey was
administered to the subjects. Underlying dimensions of grading
criteria were studied, and the relationship between including a
specific criterion and its weight in a specific classroom context was
examined. Elementary school and high school teachers were compared
for use of grading criteria. Frequencies of teacher responses to 35
grading criteria were tabulated. Factor analysis and discriminant
analysis identified teacher criteria. Teachers indicated that they
definitely included five criteria in grading (unit tests, quizzes,
essays or papers, effort, and semester tests). Six criteria were
identified as probably included (projects, assignments, book reports,
class participation, ability, and behavioral criteria), and four
others were selected as "probably not" (spelling, grammar,
handwriting, and aggressiveness). Gender, parent involvement in
school activities, and parent involvement in class activities were
identified as definitely not to be included. Four factors were
identified as underlying dimensions of the grading criteria: (1)
classroom behavior and characteristics enhancing the learning
process; (2) measures of achievement and academic content; (3)
student behavior and non-content academic skills; and (4) traits and
factors external to the classroom. Clear differences were seen
between elementary school and secondary school teachers. There are
nine tables of study findings and a 12-item list of references.
(SLD)
Descriptors: *Academic Achievement; Achievement Tests; Classroom
Techniques; Comparative Analysis; Discriminant Analysis; *Elementary
School Teachers; Elementary Secondary Education; *Evaluation Criteria;
Factor Analysis; Factor Structure; *Grading; *Secondary School
Teachers; *Student Evaluation; Teacher Attitudes
EJ398477 TM514669
Classroom Standard Setting and Grading Practices.
Terwilliger, James S.
Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, v8 n2 p15-19 Sum
1989
Revision of a paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the
American Education Research Association (New Orleans, LA, April 5-9,
1988) and National Council on Measurement in Education (New Orleans,
LA, April 6-8, 1988).
Document Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE (080); EVALUATIVE REPORT (142);
CONFERENCE PAPER (150)
The process of assigning grades to students is analyzed, and a
specific approach to grading is recommended that distinguishes
between minimal and developmental objectives. Criterion-referenced
and norm-referenced concepts are used in the approach, which is best
suited for secondary school or college. (SLD)
Descriptors: *Classroom Techniques; College Faculty; *Criterion
Referenced Tests; *Educational Objectives; Evaluation Methods;
*Grading; Higher Education; *Norm Referenced Tests; Secondary
Education; Secondary School Teachers; *Student Evaluation
Identifiers: *Standard Setting
ED305748 EA020878
Assessing and Grading Student Achievement. ERS Report.
Robinson, Glen E.; Craver, James M.
Educational Research Service, Arlington, Va. 1989
198p.
Available From: Publication Sales, Educational Research Service,
2000 Clarendon Boulevard, Arlington, VA 22201 (Stock No. 219-21776;
$20.00 prepaid).
Document Type: RESEARCH REPORT (143); REVIEW LITERATURE (070)
The primary purpose of this report is to describe the practices and
procedures used by school districts to assess and grade student
achievement. In April of 1988, the Educational Research Service
conducted a nationwide survey of the grading and reporting practices
and procedures using a stratified random sample of public school
districts. The background history and overview of the literature of
assessment and grading are presented in section I. Section II
presents a general analysis of the survey data in graphic form.
Section III presents the data in detailed tabular form. Section IV
summarizes the first three sections of the report. Section V
contains examples of school board policy statements that show the
scope of district policy relating to the assessment and grading of
student achievement. Section VI includes reproductions of report
cards showing the variety of approaches that school districts are
currently using to report pupil progress. Appended are 98 references.
(SI)
Descriptors: Academic Ability; *Academic Achievement; Academic
Records; Board of Education Policy; Elementary Secondary Education;
*Grading; National Surveys; Public Schools; School Districts; School
Surveys; *Student Evaluation
ED292880 TM011331
Classroom Standard Setting and Grading Practices.
Terwilliger, James S.
Apr 1988
18p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association (New Orleans, LA, April 5-9, 1988).
EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Document Type: CONFERENCE PAPER (150); POSITION PAPER (120)
The assignment of grades to students is discussed, and a grading
process is recommended. The process begins with the separation of
minimal and developmental objectives. Minimal objectives represent
course outcomes that all students are expected to achieve;
developmental objectives are more complex goals toward which students
strive, but which few fully achieve. Student achievement can first
be measured with respect to minimal objectives only, with a passing
standard established. Criterion-referenced tests are well-suited for
this purpose. Norm-referenced grading of separate instruments is to
be used for developmental objectives. The proposed system is
probably best suited to secondary school and undergraduate college
classrooms where there is a need to use five or more grade categories. (SLD)
Descriptors: Academic Achievement; Academic Standards; *Classroom
Techniques; *Criterion Referenced Tests; *Grading; Higher Education;
*Norm Referenced Tests; *Pass Fail Grading; Postsecondary Education;
Secondary Education; Test Interpretation; Test Norms
Identifiers: *Standard Setting
EJ333027 EA519698
Grading--Why Are School Policies Necessary? What Are the Issues?
Thomas, William C.
NASSP Bulletin, v70 n487 p23-26 Feb 1986
Document Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE (080); POSITION PAPER (120)
Target Audience: Administrators; Practitioners
Argues that current grading practices in some schools lack
consistency in several critical areas, including criteria for
failure, absolute or relative standards, and motivation of slower
students. Policies are suggested that will help educators develop
fairer and more humane marking systems. (TE)
Descriptors: Academic Achievement; *Academic Standards; Achievement
Rating; Elementary Secondary Education; Failure; *Grades (Scholastic);
*Grading; Homogeneous Grouping; Report Cards; *School Policy;
*Student Evaluation; Student Motivation
ED279713 TM870158
Inside High School Grading Practices. The Northwest Regional
Educational Laboratory Program Report.
Stiggins, Richard J.; And Others
Northwest Regional Educational Lab., Portland, Oreg.
30 Nov 1986
37p.; Appended "Reasons for Discrepancies" pages contain small
print.
Sponsoring Agency: Office of Educational Research and Improvement
(ED), Washington, DC.
Document Type: RESEARCH REPORT (143)
This investigation was undertaken to provide insights as to how to
improve the quality and relevance of teacher training in grading
practices. The study was designed, by looking at grading practices
of 15 high school teachers via intensive case study methodology, to
explore: (1) the nature and technical quality of assessment and
grading practices; and (2) why professional training has had so
little impact. The researchers prepared a comprehensive framework of
34 grading issues to serve as a basis for observing teachers' grading
practices. Information was gathered from each of the teachers in
relation to the questions about grading practices. Seven questions
focused on basic assumptions or antecedents that feed actual grading
practices; twenty dealt with grading practices themselves; and the
remainder addressed issues of the effects of grading. Discrepancies
between best practices and actual practices were noted in 26 of the
issues. An analysis of possible causes for the discrepancies
revealed that 21 of the 26 practices probably have multiple causes.
Recommended practice may need to be reevaluated in light of the
realities of the classroom, and training in sound grading practices
for teachers and principals is needed. (Results are presented for
each issue, and reasons for discrepancies between recommended and
actual practice are listed in chart form.) (LMO)
Descriptors: Academic Achievement; *Classroom Techniques;
*Evaluation Methods; Grades (Scholastic); *Grading; *High Schools;
Research Methodology; *Secondary School Teachers; Standards; *Student
Evaluation; Teacher Attitudes; Teacher Improvement
EJ294772 CS729355
Ten Better Measures than Giving Grades.
Malehorn, Hal
Clearing House, v57 n6 p256-67 Feb 1984
Document Type: POSITION PAPER (120)
Describes 10 methods of assessment that teachers can use alone or
in combination: (1) multiple marking, (2) peer evaluation, (3)
mastery learning, (4) contracted learning, (5) credit/no credit
grading, (6) self-evaluation, (7) anecdotal records, (8) pupil
profiles, (9) checklists, and (10) dossiers. (FL)
Descriptors: Educational Testing; Elementary Secondary Education;
*Evaluation Methods; Grades (Scholastic); *Grading; *Informal
Assessment; Mastery Learning; Peer Evaluation; Self Evaluation
(Individuals); *Student Evaluation
ED238143 EA016238
A Study of the Letter Grade System and Its Effect on the
Curriculum.
Burton, Fredrick
Apr 1983
11p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association (Montreal, Quebec, Canada, April 11-
15, 1983).
Document Type: RESEARCH REPORT (143); POSITION PAPER (120)
Target Audience: Researchers; Practitioners
This study explores and identifies patterns of teacher, student,
parent, and administrator responses to letter grade evaluation
systems. The study examined four main points: rationales for letter
grades, interpretations of grading procedures and process, the
consequences of letter grades, and alternatives to letter grades.
The study involved an open-ended questionnaire, formal and informal
interviews, and a survey. The researcher determined that letter
grades influence the sustenance of traditional curriculum based on
behaviorist theory with a resultant "trivialization" of content.
Students associate their worth and value as human beings with their
grades and focus their attention on finishing their work rather than
on learning. The letter grade system seems to support a school
curriculum shackled by time. (MD)
Descriptors: Administrator Attitudes; Conventional Instruction;
Curriculum; Elementary Secondary Education; *Grades (Scholastic);
*Grading; Parent Attitudes; *Student Attitudes; *Student Evaluation;
Surveys; *Teacher Attitudes; Value Judgment
EJ204060 UD507096
Education and Distributive Justice: Some Reflections on Grading
Systems.
Deutsch, Morton
American Psychologist, v34 n5 p391-401 May 1979
Available From: Reprint: UMI
Document Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE (080); REVIEW LITERATURE (070);
POSITION PAPER (120)
This article focuses on the distribution of grades as symbols of
educational merit. The social function of the artificially created
shortage of high marks is discussed and different characteristics of
grading systems are considered. The effects of cooperative and
competitive distributive systems are summarized. (Author/EB)
Descriptors: Competitive Selection; *Educational Problems;
Elementary Secondary Education; *Equal Education; *Evaluation
Criteria; *Grades (Scholastic); Higher Education; Literature Reviews;
Measurement Techniques; *Moral Values; Opinions; *Student Evaluation
ED143673 TM006372
Grading. NEA Professional Studies.
Bellanca, James A.
National Education Association, Washington, D.C. 1977
98p.; Parts of document may be marginally legible due to print
quality
Available From: National Education Association Order Dept.,
Academic Building, Westhaven, Connecticut 06516 (Stock Number 1603-3-
00, paperbound, $5.75; Stock Number 1612-2-00, clothbound, $9.85)
Document Type: BOOK (010)
A brief overview of the societal context for current grading
practices forms the background for a discussion of alternatives to
the assignment of letter or numerical grades to represent student
performance. According to the author, in order to meet the criteria
for effective feedback, schools and colleges must undergo several
fundamental attitude changes. He proposes the following: (1) that
only criterion-based, nonjudgmental feedback and individualized
reporting methods which reinforce each child's self-image be used in
grades K-8; (2) that each high school decide upon its own criteria
for student placement in courses; (3) that clear, precise criteria
for a high school diploma, based on demonstrated knowledge and skill
mastery, be established; and (4) that each college and university
should develop its entrance requirements based on a student's
demonstrated ability to read, write, and analyze at a specified level
determined by each college's faculty. One section of this document
concentrates on specific methods for changing the grading system.
Several sample evaluation forms are appended. (MV)
Descriptors: Change Strategies; Educational Objectives; *
Elementary Secondary Education; Evaluation Criteria; *Evaluation
Methods; *Grades (Scholastic); *Grading; Parent Teacher Conferences;
*Report Cards; Self Evaluation; *Student Evaluation
ED117193 TM005053
The Continuing Controversy over Grades. TM Report 51.
Warren, Jonathan R.
ERIC Clearinghouse on Tests, Measurement, and Evaluation,
Princeton, N.J. Nov 1975
13p.
Sponsoring Agency: National Inst. of Education (DHEW), Washington,
D.C.
Available From: ERIC Clearinghouse on Tests, Measurement, and
Evaluation, Educational Testing Service, Princeton, N.J. 08540 (free
while supplies last)
Document Type: RESEARCH REPORT (143)
Although grades have been criticized for lack of reliability, end-
of course grades and grade-point averages are reliable enough for
most uses. The charge of unreliability applies only to grades on
themes, tests, or other individual pieces of student work. On the
other side of the controversy, grades have been said to be essential
to the learning process because they provide for the evaluation of
student performance. But performance is evaluated and its results
reported to students independently of any grading system. The
justification for grades must lie elsewhere. The critical issue in
grading is the validity and usefulness of grades for the variety of
purposes they are called on to serve--conveying information on
student achievement, providing incentives for students to study,
serving as selection criteria, providing material for administrative
records, helping in the evaluation and monitoring of the
instructional process, and assisting students in educational and
occupational planning. Until better information is available on the
effectiveness of grades with respect to these various functions, the
continued trading of unsupported assertions about them will be
fruitless. New approaches to grading, such as contract and criterion-
referenced grading, do not change the basic issues. (Author/RC)
Descriptors: Elementary Secondary Education; Evaluation Criteria;
Grade Inflation; *Grades (Scholastic); Grading; Higher Education;
Performance Contracts; Reliability; *Student Evaluation; *Validity
Identifiers: Criterion Referenced Grading
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